II. REGRESSION: R functions for multiple regression and its ramifications

 

Several sections of the Topics indicated below will be OPTIONAL.

 

 

(a) Topic 1: Basics [Chapter 3 in Jank] Simple and multiple regression

 

In this section we will look at sales/advertising/income data and consider simple and multiple linear regression models.

 

In case you are not comfortable with formulas, let me give you a simple example from soccer. Consider a soccer star (Neymar?) whose fixed monthly salary is 100K. Now suppose that for each goal (G) he scores in a month, he is paid 10K. The total salary (S) per month is then S = 100 + 10G. If he scored 5 goals this month, he would be paid S = 100 + 10*5 = 150 (thousand). [This is similar to a simple regression problem.]

 

Now suppose he also gets paid 7K for each assist (A). The new formula for his monthly salary would be S = 100 + 10G + 7A. If he scored G = 5 goals and had A = 6 assists, he would get S = 100 + 10*5 + 7*6 = 192 (thousand) that month. [This is similar to a multiple regression problem.]

 

Clearly, in this example, we know exactly how much Neymar will make each month if we know what G and A values are. But in our problems, life is not that simple because of uncertainty/variability in data.

 

 

a.1 Sales vs. advertising

 

vs.

 

Here is (was) a cool animation for finding the regression line: Animation for regression. [Sorry, this stopped working after I installed the new version of Java. No idea why this is happening with Java.]

 

Here is a graphical explanation of what linear regression does. Note the meaning of SST, SSE and SSR from which we obtain R^2 = SSR/SST which is always between 0 and 1. (Could SST, SSE and SSR be interpreted as Total Cholesterol, Bad Cholesterol and Good Cholesterol, resp.?)

 

PLEASE EXIT AND THEN RESTART R BEFORE RUNNING THESE EXAMPLES.

 

Example: (Sales vs. Advertising) Let's use the sales and advertising data [Table3.1Sales-Advertising.csv] and analyze it.

 

 

>>Predictions

 

How do we predict the sales for given advertising levels and also find prediction and confidence intervals?

 

The next two commands are used to do the predictions:

 

newPoint <- data.frame(ADVT=10.25); newPoint

 

predict(RegModel.1,newPoint,interval="prediction")

 

 

Here are a few more examples of predictions. The inputs and results should be clear from the context.

 

newPoints <- data.frame(ADVT=c(8:11)); newPoints
ADVT
1 8
2 9
3 10
4 11

predict(RegModel.1,newPoints,interval="prediction")
  fit      lwr      upr
1 112.0672 79.10412 145.0304
2 119.5945 88.28846 150.9005
3 127.1217 96.49693 157.7466
4 134.6490 103.66509 165.6329

 

You could also enter

data.frame(ADVT=c(8,9.2,10.7))

to predict for 8, 9.2 and 10.7.

 

This is also possible:

data.frame(ADVT=c(seq(8,10.5,by=0.5)))

if you want to predict for 8, 8.5, 9, 9.5, 10, 10.5.

 

Once the regression model is computed, we need to check certain things. Perhaps most importantly, the errors must be approximately normally distributed. This can be done graphically as follows:

 

 

 

Example: (Anscombe's Quartet) Here's an amazing example of four problems with very different datasets which give the same results. Anscombe's quartet.

 

Example: (Your data; actually 2018 and 2019: Excel file .xlsx)  Height-Gender-Handspan-T711-2019-2018 We will see if this model works well to estimate someone'e height from his/her handspan.

 

New <- data.frame(Handspan=xx); New

 

predict(RegModel.1,New,interval="prediction")

 

Exercise: Consider this house price dataset [HousePrices-Data.csv] for 124 houses. Do a simple regression with Price as dependent variable and SqrFt as independent variable. Perform analysis similar to what we did above with the advertising/sales problem. (Answer: Regression equation is Price = 259.88 + 120.16 x SqrFt.)

 

a.2 Sales vs. advertising and income

 

 

vs. and

 

 

PLEASE EXIT AND THEN RESTART R BEFORE RUNNING THESE EXAMPLES.

 

Example: (Sales vs. Advertising and Income) Now we use the sales vs. advertising and income data [Table 3.1 Sales-Advertising-Income.csv]. So, this is a multiple regression problem which is solved as follows:

 

 

 

>>Predictions

 

We should be able to predict the Sales from the given values of Advertising and Income as follows:

new <- data.frame(ADVT=8, INCOME=53);new

 

predict(RegModel.1, new, interval="prediction")

 

 

 

Exercise: Consider the same house price dataset [HousePrices-Data.csv] for 124 houses used above. Now use SqrFt, LotSize, Bedrooms and Bathrooms as independent variables and Price as dependent variable and perform a multiple regression.

 

a.3 Customers' Spending Patterns (Direct Marketing)

 

This example is self-reading as the dataset considered here is included in Assignment #2.

 

Example: (Direct Marketing) Let's retun to the same dataset we looked at the first day, i.e., the direct marketing data. Recall that this dataset has four numerical variables and the rest are qualitative. Let's do a multiple regression on these four varibles with AmountSpent as the dependent variable. Here's the Direct marketing data set [Table 2.6 DirectMarketing.csv] again.

 

We can also do a correlation plot of the above dataset using corrplot. Rcmdr first generates the correlation matrix which we call M and then ask corrplot to do the work. Here are the results. You can use the following commands after creating the M matrix of correlations:

corrplot(M, method = "ellipse")

 

or, the next one which orders the correlations according to their magnitude. Useful if you have a large number of them.

corrplot(M, order = "FPC",method="ellipse")

 

a.4 A really large example (100,000,000 data points)

 

Example: (BIG Stuff!) How long would it take to generate 1,000,000 observations (standard normal) for 100 variables plus the means? Once that is done, how long does it take to run a 100 independent variable multiple regression problem with the 1,000,000 observations? (Just a minute or two!) We will do this in class.

 

 

Exercise: The problem statement for this Education Level/Gender/Income problem is here. You will need this Excel data file [Education-Gender-Income.xlsx] to import into Rcmdr and do the calculations.

 

 

a.5 House Prices (Important, so this will be covered)

 

 

 

PLEASE EXIT AND THEN RESTART R BEFORE RUNNING THESE EXAMPLES.

 

Example: (House Prices) This is a more challenging problem with qualitative factors (such as Yes/No, North/West/East) for some variables in the dataset [Table2.1HousePrices.csv]. To find the regression equation, you will need to use Rcmdr's Statistics > Fit Models > Linear Model as LinearModel.1 <- lm(Price ~ Bathrooms + Bedrooms + Brick + Neighborhood + Offers + SqFt, data=Dataset). The confint(LinearModel.1) command will produce the confidence intervals for coefficients. Here are the results.

 

Please note; important!: The output indicates that Brick[T.Yes] coefficient is 17297.350. This means that as you move from the base level of Brick[T.No] to Brick[T.Yes], you would expect an increase of about 17297.35 in the sale price of your house. (The factor name that doesn't appear in the list is the base level.) Similarly, the base level for Neighborhood is Neighborhood[T.East] which doesn't appear in the list. So, 1560.579 for Neighborhood[T.North] is how much is the expected difference between the price of a house in the East vs. in the North.

 

Prediction of the dependent variable when factors are present (such as Brick, Neighboorhood) can be a little tricky. Here is what you need to do if you want to predict the price of a house with 3 bathrooms, 5 bedrooms, brick, north neighborhood, 2 offers and 2000 sqft. As usual, the highlighted commands are entered manually as follows:

 

new <- data.frame(Bathrooms=3, Bedrooms=5, Brick="Yes", Neighborhood="North", Offers=2, SqFt=2000); new

 

predict(LinearModel.1,new,interval="prediction")

 

I used the corrplot package to plot the correlations between different numerical variables in this example. Here is the result.

 

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(b) Topic 2: Making models more flexible [Chapter 4 in Jank] Dummy variables, interaction terms, data transformations, nonlinear regression models

 

 

 

 

b.1 "Dummy" variables vs. Factors [For information only]

 

 

Example (very simple): (Trucking) Suppose we have this dataset [Trucking-Factor.csv] where we want to estimate the travel time, given, (i) distance travelled, (ii) number of deliveries and (iii) truck type. Note that truck type (Pickup, or Van) is not given as a numerical value. In previous regression examples, the variables were all numerical, but now the truck type is a categorical variable. So, what do we do now?

 

>>Predictions

 

New <- data.frame(Km=45, Deliveries=3, TruckType="Van")

 

predict(LinearModel.1, New, interval="prediction")

 

 

‡ Optional material starts here

 

 

 

Example: (Discrimination?) Let's consider the dataset for salaries [Table4.1GenderDiscrimination-Factor.csv]. When we ignore the gender and plot the dataset, we are missing out on the information inherent in the gender differences. Only when we plot the data according to gender group, we see a more clear picture. The Rcmdr results are here. So, if we just consider the Experience and Salary columns, the regression equation is found as Salary = 59033.1 + 1727.3 x Experience. (R-squared = 0.31.) But is this accurate?¶

 

But the workers' gender may make a difference in the salary. To account for this just use the "Linear model". Rcmdr knows that Gender is a factor. If you pick it as an independent variable, R figures out the rest and you get the result as Salary = 53260 + 1744 x Experience + 17020 x Gender[T.Male]. (You can do this as an exercise!)

 

So, here is the summary of what we have found so far:

 

 

b.2 Interaction terms [OPTIONAL]

 

This is a somewhat difficult material. So, let me give you a few real-life examples of interaction (from Wikipedia.)

 

 

Now, back to our discussion...

 

 

 

 

 

Example: (More Discrimination?)We noted above that each additional year of experience is 1,744 for either gender. But this is not quite logical. Could it be more for males? Or, for females? We analyse this using an interaction term in the form Experience*Gender in the Linear Model. That is, just use the "Linear model" and incorporate the product of Experience and Gender new "variable." Rcmdr figures out what to do and finds the result. Here again is the dataset for salaries [Table4.1GenderDiscrimination-Factor.csv] and the model is, 

 

LinearModel.1 <- lm(Salary ~ Experience + Gender + Experience*Gender, data=Dataset).

 

The output is obtained as follows. (The coefficients are shown in bold font, and Experience:Gender[T.Male]

is the interaction term.)

 

Coefficients:
                         Estimate     Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)
(Intercept)              66333.6         2811.7   23.592 < 2e-16 ***
Experience                 666.7          206.5    3.228 0.00145 **
Gender[T.Male]           -8034.3         4110.6   -1.955 0.05201 .
Experience:Gender[T.Male] 2086.2          287.3    7.261 7.95e-12 ***
---
Signif. codes: 0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1

 

 

Thus,

 

Salary = 66,333 + 666 x Experience - 8,034 x Gender[T.Male] + 2,086 x Experience:Gender[T.Male]

 

Now what happens?

 

 

>>Predictions

 

Suppose you want to estimate a fair salary for a male with 13 years of experience. We do this:

 

New <- data.frame(Experience=13, Gender="Male")

 

New

 

predict(LinearModel.1,New,interval="prediction")

 

 

Note 1 : There is an even easier way to get the same results. Just enter Gender=="Male" in the subset box in Linear model, and R gives the regression results for males, only. (Note the double ==.) You can do this as an Exercise. ¶

 

Note 2: [Caveat! Advanced material] What exactly do we mean by "interaction." Let me make it more clear by comparing two functions (assuming you know some calculus), (i) f(x,y) = ax + by, and (ii) g(x,y) = ax + by + cxy.

 

In the first case, there is no interaction between x and y, but in the second there is!

 

Here's why: df/dx = a, so that df = a*dx, i.e., the changes in y do not affect f in this case.

 

But for the second function, dg/dx = a + cy, so that dg = (a + cy)*dx, i.e., changes in y do affect g!

 

‡ Optional material ends here

 

 

b.3 Nonlinear relationships and logarithmic data transformations

 

 

> log(2500)
[1] 7.824046

 

 

> exp(7.824046)
[1] 2500

 

 

First, an example!

 

PLEASE EXIT AND THEN RESTART R BEFORE RUNNING THESE EXAMPLES.

 

Example: (UN Data) Here is a fascinating example with dataset from the United Nations on a country's GDP and the infant mortality. (You read it from within Rcmdr via "Data > Data in Packages > Read Data From Attached Package > carData > UN". The data file is in native R format, i.e., it is not an Excel file.)

 

Here is the same file in our usual .csv format: UN.csv

 

We use ppgdp (per person GDP) as the x-variable and infantMortality as the y-variables.

 

The data is highly nonlinear and a linear fit gives terrible results. But a log transformation of both variables produces a reasonably linear cloud of points through which we fit a line quite accurately.

PLEASE EXIT AND THEN RESTART R BEFORE RUNNING THESE EXAMPLES.

 

Example: (Price vs. Demand) Let's consider this data set [Table 4.2 PriceAndDemand.csv] for this example. The scatterplot reveals that there may be a nonlinear relationship between price and quantity. Initially, we fit a line to the data and obtain an R^2 = 0.6236. The graphs obtained for the model reveal that the assumption of errors being normal is not satisfied. When we further do a scatterplot with log x and log y axes, the graph of transformed data appears more linear. A fit using log(Price) and log(Qty) gives the coefficient b = -1.1810 which means that for a 1% increase in price, quantity demanded would reduce by about 1.181%. Here is the output of the results. In this example, we use the Linear Model (not Linear Regression) since we need to enter log(Qty) and log(Price).

 

Note: If you want to see the log-transformed (squeezed) x- and y- axes values, you should manually type log(Qty) and log(Price) in the scatterplot(.) command inside the Rcmdr input window and submit it. Like this,

 

scatterplot(log(Qty)~log(Price), regLine=TRUE, smooth=FALSE, boxplots=FALSE, data=Dataset)

 

Now, a bit of "theory." (For those who are interested. So, this is optional.)

 

Suppose you are not convinced that a linear relationship between price (P) and demand (D) is justifiable; so you decide to use a nonlinear one, e.g., D = exp(a)*P^b where a and b are your coefficients. If you differentiate both sides, we get

 

dD/dP = exp(a)*b*P^(b-1) = b*exp(a)*P^b*(1/P) = b*D/P.

 

Rewriting, we have,

 

dD/D = b*dP/P,

 

which says that if you increase price P by 1%, demand D will change by b%. (For example, if P = 100, dP = 1, then dP/P = 1%. Now, if b = -2.5, this means that dD/D = -2.5%, so demand will go down by 2.5%.)

 

Now, taking the logarithms of both sides of D = exp(a)*P^b, we get log(D) = a + b*log(P), which is a nice linear equation, if you write y = log(D) and x = log(P). This means that we can do whatever we were doing as before on the log transformed problem and use the results keeping in mind the meaning of the coefficient b. This is what we will do next. ¶

 

End of "theory."

 

The interpretation of the estimates of the coefficients will be provided in the next two examples.

 

>>Predictions

 

To predict sales for a price of, say, 5 dollars, we enter

newPoint <- data.frame(Price=5); newPoint

 

predict(LinearModel.1,newPoint,interval="prediction")

 

The result is 7.300391 which is the natural logarithm of the Qty. Converting, we use exp(7.300391) and get

exp(7.300391)
[1] 1480.879

 

So, the predicted demand (Qty) is about 1480 units.

 

Note: Suppose demand D is influenced by price P and another variable, say, average salary S. We then write D = exp(a)(P^b1)(S^b2). Taking logarithms, we get log(D) = a + (b1)log(P) + (b2)log(S) which is now a linear multiple regression model where we need to estimate a, b1 and b2. Earlier results apply.

 

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(c) Topic 3: Making models more selective [Chapter 5 in Jank] Multicollinearity, variable selection by stepwise regression

 

c.1 Multicollinearity

 

 

 

Is it always a good idea to include as many independent variables as we can in a regression problem? No! Let's see why.

 

PLEASE EXIT AND THEN RESTART R BEFORE RUNNING THESE EXAMPLES.

 

Example: (BIG Trouble!) Consider the dataset [Table5.1Sales-and-Assets.csv] for a problem with sales and assets as independent variables and profit as the dependent variable.

 

 

Exercise:  (BIG Trouble!) Use this dataset [Butler-x1-x2-Multicollinear.csv] to find a regression equation for Time as dependent variable and Km, Deliveries and Gas (consumed) as independent variables. Is there a high correlation between Km and Gas? What can go wrong with such problems?

 

c.2 Variable selection by stepwise regression

 

 

R has a nice way of dealing with the multicollinearity problem using stepwise regression.

 

 

Example (Sales and Assets continued): (Stepwise) We use the same dataset [Table5.1Sales-and-Assets.csv] as above. The stepwise procedure is applied after the regression problem is solved by using Models > Stepwise Model Selection... Here is the result.

 

 

Exercise: Consider again the house price dataset [HousePrices-Data.csv] for 124 houses.

 

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(d) Topic 4: Data modelling - Fine-tuning your model [Chapter 6 in Jank: Sec. 6.2.2] Nonparametric regression

 

d.1 Nonparametric regression [OPTIONAL]

 

This topic will probably be covered online (post-residence), but here are some details about it.

 

Up to this point we always assumed a parametric form for our models. In linear models, we had, e.g., D = a + bP for price/demand relationship. In nonlinear, log-transformed models, we had D = exp(a)P^b which was transformed to log(D) = a + blog(P).

 

What if we can't make any assumptions about our models? If so, we just need to do some sophisticated curve-fitting which is the idea behind "Nonparametric Regression." Here's an example.

 

Example: (Nonparametric) Let's consider again this data set [Table 4.2 PriceAndDemand.csv] for this example. We now use Statistics > Fit Models > Linear Model. Here, we use the B-spline option and for dependent variable we enter Qty. For independent variable we now have bs(Price, df = 5) which works well for most problems. The results are found as,

 

> summary(LinearModel.1)

Call:
lm(formula = Qty ~ bs(Price, df = 5), data = Dataset)

Residuals:
Min 1Q Median 3Q Max
-238.67 -131.92 -24.93 118.85 361.72

Coefficients:
Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)
(Intercept) 2724.0 133.9 20.349 < 2e-16 ***
bs(Price, df = 5)1 -773.5 269.4 -2.872 0.00626 **
bs(Price, df = 5)2 -1112.9 182.3 -6.106 2.36e-07 ***
bs(Price, df = 5)3 -1511.0 194.5 -7.768 8.71e-10 ***
bs(Price, df = 5)4 -1363.1 189.0 -7.212 5.60e-09 ***
bs(Price, df = 5)5 -1525.4 203.9 -7.483 2.25e-09 ***
---
Signif. codes: 0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1

Residual standard error: 166.2 on 44 degrees of freedom
Multiple R-squared: 0.7926, Adjusted R-squared: 0.7691
F-statistic: 33.64 on 5 and 44 DF, p-value: 5.63e-14

Note the high R^2. We can also do predictions as before, and obtain,

 

newPoint <- data.frame(Price=5)

predict(LinearModel.1,newPoint,interval="prediction")
1
1424.84

This predicted value is close to the result we found in the log-transformation case.

 

Note: Suppose demand D is influenced by price P and another variable, say, average salary S. Even if we can't make any assumptions about the model, we can still use the nonparametric approach. In this case, we would enter

lm(formula = Qty ~ bs(P, df = 5) + bs(S, df = 5), data = Dataset)

 

This would solve the problem with two variables. Earlier results apply.

 

d.2 Term Project Information

 

 

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